Berthe Morisot Bio - French Impressionist Painter

Berthe Morisot Bio - French Impressionist Painter Movement, Style, Type or School of Art: Impressionism Date and Place of Birth: January 14, 1841, Bourges, Cher, France Life: Berthe Morisot led a double life. As the daughter of Edme Tiburce Morisot, a high-level government official, and Marie Cornà ©lie Mayniel, also the daughter of a high-level government official, Berthe was expected to entertain and cultivate the right â€Å"social connections.† Married at the advanced age of 33 to Eugà ¨ne Manet (1835-1892) on December 22, 1874, she entered into a suitable alliance with the Manet family, also members of the haute bourgeois (upper middle class), and she became Édouard Manets sister-in-law. Édouard Manet (1832-1883) had already introduced Berthe to Degas, Monet, Renoir, and Pissarro - the Impressionists. Before becoming Madame Eugà ¨ne Manet, Berthe Morisot established herself as a professional artist. Whenever she had time, she painted in her very comfortable residence in Passy, a fashionable suburb just outside of Paris (now part of the wealthy 16th arrondissement). However, when visitors came to call, Berthe Morisot hid her paintings and presented herself once again as a conventional society hostess in the sheltered world outside the city. Morisot may have come from an august artistic lineage. Some biographers claim that her grandfather or granduncle was the Rococo artist Jean-Honorà © Fragonard (1731-1806). Art historian Anne Higonnet claims that Fragonard may have been an indirect relative. Tiburce Morisot came from a skilled artisanal background. During the nineteenth century, haute bourgeois women did not work, did not aspire to achieve recognition outside the home and did not sell their modest artistic accomplishments. These young ladies might have received a few art lessons to cultivate their natural talents, as demonstrated in the exhibition Playing with Pictures, but their parents did not encourage pursuing a professional career. Madame Marie Cornà ©lie Morisot raised her lovely daughters with the same attitude. Intent on developing a basic appreciation for art, she arranged for Berthe and her two sisters Marie-Elizabeth Yves (known as Yves, born in 1835) and Marie Edma Caroline (known as Edma, born in 1839) to study drawing with the minor artist Geoffrey-Alphonse-Chocarne. The lessons did not last long. Bored with Chocarne, Edma and Berthe moved on to Joseph Guichard, another minor artist, who opened their eyes to the greatest classroom of all: the Louvre. Then Berthe began to challenge Guichard and the Morisot ladies were passed on to Guichards friend Camille Corot (1796-1875). Corot wrote to Madame Morisot: With characters like your daughters, my teaching will make them painters, not minor amateur talents. Do you really understand what that means? In the world of the grande bourgeoisie in which you move, it would be a revolution. I would even say a catastrophe. Corot was a not a clairvoyant; he was a seer. Berthe Morisots dedication to her art brought on terrible periods of depression as well as extreme exultation. To be accepted into the Salon, complemented by Manet or invited to exhibit with the emerging Impressionists gave her tremendous satisfaction. But she always suffered from insecurity and self-doubt, typical of a woman competing in a mans world. Berthe and Edma submitted their work to the Salon for the first time in 1864. All four works were accepted. Berthe continued to submit their work and exhibited in the Salon of 1865, 1866, 1868, 1872, and 1873. In March 1870, as Berthe prepared to send off her painting Portrait of the Artists Mother and Sister to the Salon, Édouard Manet dropped by, proclaimed his approval and then proceeded to add a few accents from top to bottom. My only hope is to be rejected, Berthe wrote to Edma. I think its miserable. The painting was accepted. Morisot met Édouard Manet through their mutual friend Henri Fantan-Latour in 1868. Over the next few years, Manet painted Berthe at least 11 times, among them: The Balcony, 1868-69 Repose: Portrait of Berthe Morisot, 1870 Berthe Morisot with a Bouquet of Violets, 1872 Berthe Morisot in a Mourning Hat, 1874 On January 24, 1874, Tiburce Morisot died. In the same month, the Socià ©tà © Anonyme Coopà ©rative started to make plans for an exhibition that would be independent of the governments official exhibition the Salon. Membership required 60 francs for dues and guaranteed a place in their exhibition plus a share of the profits from the sale of the artworks. Perhaps losing her father gave Morisot the courage to become involved with this renegade group. They opened their experimental show on April 15, 1874, which became known as the First Impressionist Exhibition. Morisot participated in all but one of the eight Impressionist exhibitions. She missed the fourth exhibition in 1879 due to the birth of her daughter Julie Manet (1878-1966) that previous November. Julie became an artist too. After the eighth Impressionist exhibition in 1886, Morisot concentrated on selling through Durand-Ruel Gallery and in May 1892 she mounted her first and only one-woman show there. However, just a few months before the show, Eugà ¨ne Manet passed away. His loss devastated Morisot. I dont want to live anymore, she wrote in a notebook. The preparations gave her a purpose to go on and eased her through this painful sorrow. Over the next few years, Berthe and Julie became inseparable. And then Morisots health failed during a bout of pneumonia. She died on March 2, 1895. The poet Stà ©phane Mallarmà © wrote in his telegrams: I am the bearer of terrible news: our poor friend Mme. Eugà ¨ne Manet, Berthe Morisot, is dead. These two names in one announcement call attention to the dual nature of her life and two identities which shaped her exceptional art. Important Works: Portrait of the Artists Mother and Sister, 1870. The Cradle, 1872. Eugà ¨ne Manet and his Daughter [Julie] in the Garden at Bougival, 1881. At the Ball, 1875. Reading, 1888. The Wet-Nurse, 1879. Self-Portrait, ca. 1885. Date and Place of Death: March 2, 1895, Paris Sources: Higonnet, Anne. Berthe Morisot.New York: HarperCollins, 1991. Adler, Kathleen. The Suburban, the Modern and Une dame de Passy Oxford Art Journal, vol. 12, no. 1 (1989): 3 - 13

Erbium Factsâ€Er Element Properties

Erbium Facts- Er Element Properties The element erbium or Er is a silvery-white, malleable  rare earth metal belonging to the lanthanide group. While you may not recognize this element on sight, you can credit the pink color of glass and man-made gems to its ion. Here are more interesting erbium facts: ErbiumBasic Facts Atomic Number: 68 Symbol: Er Atomic Weight: 167.26 Discovery: Carl Mosander 1842 or 1843 (Sweden) Electron Configuration: [Xe] 4f12 6s2 Word Origin: Ytterby, a town in Sweden (also the source of the name of the elements yttrium, terbium, and ytterbium) Interesting Erbium Facts Erbium was one of three elements found in yttria that Mosander separated from the mineral gadolinite. The three components were called yttria, erbia, and terbia. The components had similar names and properties, which became confusing. Mosanders erbia later became known as terbia, while the original terbia became erbia.Although erbium (along with several rare earths) was discovered in the mid-19th century, it was not isolated as a pure element until 1935 because the group of elements had such similar properties.  W. Klemm and H. Bommer purified erbium by reducing anhydrous erbium chloride with potassium vapor.Although a rare earth, erbium is not all that rare.  The element is the 45th most abundant in the Earths crust, at a level of about 2.8  mg/kg. It is found in seawater at concentrations of 0.9  ng/LThe price of erbium is approximately $650 per kilogram. Recent advances in ion-exchange extraction are bringing the price down while increasing uses of the element drive the pr ice up. Summary of Erbium Properties The melting point of erbium is 159 °C, the boiling point is 2863 °C, specific gravity is 9.066 (25 °C), and valence is 3. Pure erbium metal is soft and malleable with a bright silvery metallic luster. The metal is fairly stable in air. Uses of Erbium Recent studies indicate erbium may help stimulate metabolism. If the element has a biological function, it has yet to be identified. The pure metal is slightly toxic, while the compounds tend to be non-toxic to humans. The highest concentration of erbium in the human body is in bones.Erbium is used as a neutron absorber in the nuclear industry.It may be added to other metals to lower hardness and improve workability. In particular, it is a common addition to vanadium to make it softer.Erbium oxide is used as a pink colorant in glass and porcelain glaze. It is also used to add a pink color to cubic zirconia.The same pink ion used in glass and porcelain, Er3, is fluorescent and appears to glow under daylight and fluorescent light. Erbiums interesting optical properties make it useful for lasers (e.g., dental lasers) and optical fibers.Like related rare earth, erbium shows sharp absorption spectra bands in the near-infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light. Sources of Erbium Erbium occurs in several minerals, along with other rare earth elements. These minerals include  gadolinite, euxenite, fergusonite, polycrase, xenotime,  and blomstrandine. Following other purification processes, erbium is isolated from similar elements into the pure metal by  heating erbium oxide or erbium salts with calcium at 1450  °C in an inert argon atmosphere. Isotopes:  Natural erbium is a mix of six stable isotopes. 29 radioactive isotopes are also recognized. Element Classification: Rare Earth (Lanthanide) Density (g/cc): 9.06 Melting Point (K): 1802 Boiling Point (K): 3136 Appearance: soft, malleable, silvery metal Atomic Radius (pm): 178 Atomic Volume (cc/mol): 18.4 Covalent Radius (pm): 157 Ionic Radius: 88.1 (3e) Specific Heat (20 °C J/g mol): 0.168 Evaporation Heat (kJ/mol): 317 Pauling Negativity Number: 1.24 First Ionizing Energy (kJ/mol): 581 Oxidation States: 3 Lattice Structure: Hexagonal Lattice Constant (Ã…): 3.560 Lattice C/A Ratio: 1.570 Erbium Element References Emsley, John (2001). Erbium. Natures Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 136–139.  Patnaik, Pradyot (2003). Handbook of Inorganic Chemical Compounds. McGraw-Hill. pp. 293–295.Los Alamos National Laboratory (2001)Crescent Chemical Company (2001)Langes Handbook of Chemistry (1952)CRC Handbook of Chemistry Physics (18th Ed.)

Accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 4

Accounting - Essay Example that would be distributed to holders of each share of common stock if all assets were sold at their balance sheet carrying amounts after all the creditors were paid off. Book value per share is based entirely on historical costs. The bank should not approve a five-year $500,000 loan to Stephens Company due to the times interest earned and debt-equity ratios. Stephens Company’s times interest earned ratio is 3.5, lower than Stephen’s industry (5). Also, the debt-to-equity ratio is 1.036, greater than 0.8 (industry ratio). Both of these figures show that the company earnings are lower than competitors and also that the company relies too much on loans or debt. The current ratio is higher than competitors and the acid-test ratio is lower than the industry average. Most of the current assets are inventory and prepaid expenses, which cannot be converted to money quickly. The gross margin is lower than the industry average and the ability of company to generate profit is low. This company does not have good prospects the long

US foreign policy and Iraq Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

US foreign policy and Iraq - Essay Example The essential political goals set by the Iraqi administration are concerning governance and reconciliation to the changed circumstances. Some of these goals are discussed in succeeding paragraphs.Major effort needs to be dovetailed to build national reconciliation through dialogues and consensus between all sectarian factions.Another important task at hand would be to mend the socially and politically divided factions through dialogue and confidence building measures. This would require strengthening of all the democratic institutions of the country and uphold the rule of law.To gain confidence, it is imperative to improve infrastructure and living conditions of all Iraqis and put the country on a path of peace and security. Most importantly, there is requirement to firmly deal with the challenges of insurgency, crime, sectarian violence and foreign terror outfits inciting a civil war in the region. Also on the anvil is a critical review of anti-terror and de-Ba'athifiation legislati on.While the aim of the democratically elected government is to bring back the country from its present quagmire to peace and security, these good intentions continue to be hampered due to adverse security conditions. The problem also lies in credible representation in governance. The present government is a representative form of government, but Sunni elements supported by external insurgents and terrorist organisations have considerable say in many regions, especially so in Baghdad, Ninewa, Salahuddin, Anbar, Diyala and Basra. Over 81% of attacks were reported in these provinces during past few years. The terrorist organisations still intimidate vulnerable sections of the society to participate in violent acts against civilians and security forces, attempt to create a civil war like condition, attack country's infrastructure and oil assets etc. Another problem area has been cooperation with multi-national (mainly US) forces, which have been likened by many as occupation forces rather than friendly forces. This aspect is also exploited by insurgents to incite civilian Iraqis to support their cause willingly or unwillingly. Other causes of serious concern remain the ever mounting loss of civilian lives, sense of uncertainty, high levels of sectarian violence and certain serious law and order situations. Implications of US Long Term Deployment or Early Withdrawal A recent US General Accountability Office report stated that the Iraqi government had failed to meet 11 of the 18 benchmarks established by the US regarding authorisation of troop surge recently. The Iraqi government had fully met only three of the legislative, security and economic benchmarks. (Easley, 2007) Only one legislative benchmark regarding rights of minority parties has been met, while only two benchmarks in area of security have been achieved. The government is yet to overcome militia control in certain regions; however there is reduced political interference in military operations, improvement in military capability to conduct independent operations and reduced political claims over military achievements. Economically, only partial implementation of utilisation of funds provided for infrastructural development has been achieved. While the report definitely falls short of expectations, there has been considerable progress in many areas which could not have been possible two years back. Thus, withdrawal of coalition forces at this stage would again reverse these positive developments undesirably. Perhaps, the need of

Resolving Ethical Issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Resolving Ethical Issues - Essay Example The facts surrounding the major ethical dilemma is the establishment of honesty, which should take precedence in all business transactions. It is a fact that Ted St. Clair is a miser who will not agree to reduce the price no matter what. Moby Dick has been on the market for a very long time, and Ted has not considered reducing his asking price. The second fact is that Reverend Smith intends to use the building for a good cause, which will benefit the community. Third, Reverend Smith has no use for the machines. He would not want Mary to lie on his behalf. Fourth, it would be unethical for Mary to lie to Ted that the buyer needs the machines. It is also unethical for Ted to overvalue his property. Mary is undecided whether she should lie to Ted about the machines to make him drop his asking price for the property. She would help Reverend Smith to get the property and use it for a good cause. Alternatively, she would tell Ted the truth, which means he will not reduce the price. Consequ ently, Reverend Smith will not afford the property. There are several alternatives that Mary can pursue to solve the ethical dilemma. First, Mary can tell Ted the trust and explain what Reverend Smith intends to do with the property.

The Role Of The Listener In Skinners Verbal Behavior Psychology Essay

The Role Of The Listener In Skinners Verbal Behavior Psychology Essay Abstract This paper examines Skinners analysis of the role of a listener in a speaker-listener verbal episode as a mediation of reinforcement for the speakers behavior. Reinforcement as a mediation is an important component yet at the same time it is insufficient definitional aspect concerning the role of the listener. As the behavior of the listener is more complex and needs to be considered more fully. Moreover, the concept of understanding and listening are examined. As Skinner assumes a person who listens and does not respond effectively that means he does not understand and therefore he does not consequate the verbal behavior of the speaker. Nevertheless, a person might listen and understand but he deliberately doesnt want to comply to the speakers verbal behavior. Introduction Skinners (1957) book, Verbal Behavior, primary focuses on the behavior of the speaker; nevertheless he doesnt neglect the behavior of the listener. As skinner explains that, an adequate account of verbal behavior need cover only as much of the behavior of the listener as is needed to explain the behavior of the speaker (Skinner, 1957, p. 2). Language, for Skinner is a learned behavior under the functional control of environmental contingencies. This may be evident when a man speaks or responds that becomes a question about human behavior and in its turn a question to be answered with adequate concepts and techniques of psychology as an experimental science of behavior (Skinner, 1957, p. 5). Verbal operant units, on the other hand, are determined by identifying functional relations between verbal behavior and the environment. For example, mand is controlled by motivational operations (MOs), the tact is controlled by discriminative stimuli (SD) in the form of objects or events, other forms of verbal operants are echoic, intraverbal, textual, and autoclitic behavior are controlled by (SD ) in the form of prior verbal stimuli and all verbal behavior comes under the discriminative control of an audience composed of a listener or audience, including the speaker himself. Skinners Account of the Role of the Listener Skinner defines verbal behavior as a behavior reinforced through the mediation of other persons (Skinner, 1957, p. 2). We notice that at this initial definition of verbal behavior Skinner does not give much attention to the role of the listener, despite the fact that there would be little verbal behavior to consider if someone had not already acquired special responses to the patterns of energy generated by the speaker. As a result, this omission can be justified, for the behavior of the listener in mediating the consequences of the behavior of the speaker is not necessarily verbal in any special sense (Skinner, 1957, p. 2). Skinner considers the listeners essential role to be the development and mediation of reinforcement for the speakers behavior. In other words, the listeners role is to physically act upon the world and to reinforce the verbal behavior of the speaker. Skinner, however, states that the presence of a listener is necessary for a verbal episode. Hence, the behaviors of a speaker and a listener taken together constitute a verbal episode, upon which Skinner emphasizes that together they compose what may be called a total speech episode. Since there is nothing in such an episode which is more than the combined behavior of two or more individuals and consequently nothing emerges in the social unit. The speaker can be studied while assuming a listener and the listener while assuming a speaker (Skinner, 1957, p. 2). Skinner in addition considers the speaker to be his own listener, as in many significant instances the listener is behaving at the same time as a speaker. Since the speaker and the listener may reside within the same skin. Thus, some of the behavior of listening resembles the behavior of speaking, mainly when the speaker understands what is said, this could be covertly seen in verbal operants as echoics, mands, tacts, intraverbals and autoclitics. At this point the speaker may serve as his own audience. As Skinner believes that an analysis of the speakers verbal behavior is determined by the establishment of a verbal repertoire of the listener without which there will be no verbal behavior. The listener plays a significant role according to Skinner in consequating the speakers behavior this could be seen when the listener provides a suitable level of attention as an eye contact, head nods, praise or even in the way he is standing face forward. This would give in its turn social reinforcement the speaker is hoping for. Also, responding to the speakers mands. This may be in the form of getting things, opening doors, and other nonverbal behavior. Another form of verbal behavior that is probably important in listening is echoic. As we covertly echo what we hear. Echoics are vocal responses that have point-to-point correspondence with the vocal emissions of other speakers and that come to serve verbal functions (Skinner, 1957). A child may point to a toy and attempt to gain access to it. If a parent holds the toy while saying toy and the child then says toy in order to gain the toy, this is an example of an echoic response, in that the copying moves to a mand function. Liste ning, therefore is conceptualized as an operant behavior maintained by the consequence of what is heard. A speaker and a listener may rotate responses turn-taking this is covertly observable. It is a particular type of interlocking verbal behavior units. As when both a listener and speaker responses are reinforced for an individual in a dyad involving turn-taking, it is an observable incidence of an episode in which both the speaker and the listener responses for each of the individuals are reinforced. In addition, there is another type of rotation as Skinner illustrates, the verbal fantasy, whether overt or covert, is automatically reinforcing to the speaker as listener. Just as the musician plays or composes what he is reinforced by hearing, or as the artist paints what reinforces him visually, so the speaker engaged in verbal fantasy says what he is reinforced by hearing or writes what he is reinforced by reading (Skinner, 1957, p. 439). Therefore, this type of rotations between speaker and listener that occurs within the individuals own skin, which in some cases is covertly observab le, is also reinforcing. The listener plays another important role; as he can strengthen the speakers verbal behavior, he can also extinguish it. This could be evident in the social punishment delivered by the verbal community in the form of an audience. There control over the speakers verbal behavior may be emitted in the form of frowns, head nods or ignoring the speaker and not responding verbally or non-verbally to his verbal behavior. Therefore, in the presence of certain audiences whom the speaker has a previous history of being positively reinforced by a speaker may emit a certain response covertly while in the presence of a negative audience another form of response may be emitted that could be overtly or with low strength or a speaker may just stop talking. In other words, different audiences will reinforce a single response differently, and for entirely different reasons (Skinner, 1957, pp. 230-232). Nonetheless, Skinner sums the ability of a listener to reinforce or punish a speakers verbal behavio r that a listener must understand what the speaker is saying, to know what the meaning of his verbal behavior is and to act properly and effectively upon hearing the speakers verbal behavior. A Critique of Skinners Account of the Role of the Listener It seems as Skinner was progressively moving further in Verbal Behavior, he started to recognize some gaps in his discussions or in other circumstances some contradictions. But most of all he started to emphasize that the listener does hold an essential role in a speakers verbal behavior, he admits that [i]t would be foolish to underestimate the difficulty of this subject matter (Skinner, 1957, p. 3). Skinner initially started with the notion that [i]t will be helpful to restrict our definition by excluding instances of speaking which are reinforced by certain kinds of effects on the listener. The exclusion is arbitrary but it helps to define a field of inquiry having certain unitary properties (Skinner, 1957, p. 224). Consequently, Skinner refined this further to say that the first restriction would be to limit the term verbal to instances in which the responses of the listener have been conditioned. He then elaborates that if we make the further provision that the listener must be responding in ways which have been conditioned specifically in order to reinforce the behavior of the speaker, then we narrow our subject to be traditionally considered as the verbal field (Skinner, 1957, p. 224-225). Therefore, a listener according to Skinner is the individual who responds in a proper effective way to stimuli generated by a speakers verbal behavior. This takes us back to the point that a listener must understand first the meaning the speaker is talking about in order to be able to respond and to behave appropriately. However, a listener may in some situations understand what the speaker is saying or asking him to do but he doesnt want to do it or in other words comply to and follow what he is told to do. This could be examined in the following example when a parent may ask his grounded son to: go and take the trash out. As a sign of anger the son does not comply to what his father asked him to do but at the same time he does understand what his father asked him to do take the trash out. This does not match Skinners previous assumption; a listener who does not respond properly to the speakers verbal behavior does not understand what has been said. In another instance, a listener may echo a word in another language but he does not understand what it means the speaker may say heureux and the listener would say heureux. At the same time Skinner explains that understanding something is to know what it means. The ability for a listener to engage in this behavior again in future similar circumstances as a response to the proper stimulus under suitable circumstances is understanding. Since it does not involve any immediate activity on the part of the listener (although responses of the othe r sorts already noted may take place concurrently), we detect the change only in his future behavior (Skinner, 1957,p. 357). A listener may say I understand only when he identified the variables which were mainly effective in leading him to make the same response [in another occasion] (Skinner, 1957, p. 280). Yet, Skinners discussion on this part also lacks an explicit explanation for how a stimulus in the past might bring behavior under the control of a stimulus in the present. This is also evident in the account of knowing which Skinner explains to be a hypothetical immediate condition that is detected only at a later date (Skinner, 1957, p. 363). In fact, at the last part of Verbal Behavior he argues that distant stimuli are weak variables and contingencies that involve them usually reinforce bridging behavior (Skinner, 1957, p.416-417). But, this means that behavior is abrupt and stopped at that point of time that needs to be bridged back. Yet, behavior is a continuous evolving interaction with the environment. Another point, there is no gap as Skinner assumes; rather events are described in different ways and forms. Skinner considers understanding to be a covert behavior as seeing and thinking. Yet at the end of Verbal Behavior Skinner states that there arent many differences between covert and overt behavior; as the variables controlling them are the same. We cant really distinguish covert from overt behavior along functional lines. A person is an expert listener for their own verbal behavior. Subtle behavior is easy for the listener to respond to when he is also the Speaker. Skinner elaborates further that thinking is most productive when verbal behavior leads to specific consequences and are reinforced as in the example of verbal daydreams. Skinner at the end of Verbal Behavior comes to the conclusion that thinking is behavior, overt or covert, verbal or nonverbal (Skinner, 1957, p.446-452). This takes us back to the very beginning of Verbal Behavior in which Skinner started by assuming that the behavior of the listener cannot be distinguished from behavior in general (Skinner, 1957, p.2). Yet, this makes us wonder why he tackled thinking to be a separate entity and the listener was marginalized. Is the listener a subject at the time Skinner wrote Verbal Behavior to be a complicated subject matter to a point he deliberately avoided discussing. If thats the issue why would Skinner take the speaker to be his own listener, and how the listener and the speaker are within one skin? Does this in its turn lead us to assume that the speaker is also a behavior? Of what we have discussed so far a solution might be in separating the listener and the speaker into two established individual entities and consequently to examine the listeners role in depth. Also, to explain further how understanding a verbal stimulus might be converted to a nonverbal response on part of a listener whic h Skinner does not give enough attention to in his discussions. Conclusion As we have discussed Skinner explains that the essential role of the listener is in the development and mediation of reinforcement for the speakers behavior. But, at the same time communication is regarded to be successful only if an expression has the same meaning for both the speaker and the listener. As numerous theories of meaning are usually applied to both speaker and listener as if the meaning process were the same for both. Yet, much of the behavior of the listener has no resemblance to the behavior of the speaker and is not verbal according to Skinners definition (Skinner, 1957, p. 33). Skinner suggests that the behavior of the listener is more complex and needs to be considered more fully, as once a repertoire of verbal behavior has been set up, a number of new problems arise from the interaction of its parts. As verbal behavior is usually the effect of multiple causes in which separate variables combine to extend their functional control, and as a result new forms of behavior emerge from the recombination of old fragments. Consequently, this has appropriate effects upon the listener. His behavior then calls for analysis especially in the case that a speaker is normally also a listener. The speaker reacts to his own behavior in several significant ways. The mere emission of responses is an incomplete characterization when behavior is composed. As another consequence of the fact that the speaker is also a listener, some of the behavior of listening resembles the behavior of speaking, particularly when the listener understands what is said. (Skinner, 1957, p.10) Howe ver, each person is controlled by a different history of reinforcement and controlling contingencies. That leads a speaker to self-edit his verbal behavior when he finds that what he said has a different meaning for the listener who in his turn is controlled by a different history of reinforcement and different controlling contingencies. Therefore, a speaker to avoid punishment he engages in a self-editing behavior. We notice that Skinners definition of verbal behavior still need further refinement to elaborate further on the nature and function of the role of a listener in a verbal episode. I find Skinners own comments on Verbal Behavior to be proper conclusion on the listeners role for the behavior of the speaker, as he states it forward to future critics that the issue of listener needs further examination. Most of my book Verbal Behavior (1957) was about the speaker. It contained a few diagrams showing interactions between speakers and listeners, but little direct discussion of listening. I could justify that because, except when the listener was also to some extent speaking, listening was not verbal in the sense of being effective only through the mediation of other persons. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ But if listeners are responsible for the behavior of speakers, we need to look more closely at what they do. (Skinner, 1989, p. 86) Skinner has tackled a very complicated subject matter, he might not dealt with all its aspects with the same level of cohesion and consistency but at the same time he has opened the door for future thinkers and critics to continue and carry on what he has established.

Christ of the Holy Bible and Dionysus of Euripides Essay -- Comparison

Christ of the Holy Bible and Dionysus of Euripides    Christ resembles Dionysus in many ways. Is it possible that Christ is simply an extension of the Dionysian myth? Though the concepts of wine and faith unite the two, the idea of revenge compared to self-sacrifice separates the two deities. Dionysus fits the Greek understanding of vengeful and selfish God that bear more anthropomorphic traits than Godly traits. Christ, however, transcends human desires for revenge and acts in self-sacrifice. This is the key separation between them. The similarity between the two Gods is striking. Dionysus is associated with wine and revelry. Christ forever associated himself with wine and celebration through the act of Communion and the Wedding at Cana. Contrary to many popular beliefs, Christ is a celebratory God. The Bible lists many occasions where God accepted the gift of his followers' song and dance. 2 Samuel 6:14, "David, wearing a linen ephod, danced before the Lord with all his might." Dionysus also encourages festivities. "I came to this city of Greeks when I had set ...